1 Fee­Alexand ra Haase Cyprus International University Synchronic Comparative Case Stud ies of Variations and Cond itions of a Mi nd Concept in Contemporary Multi­Lingual and Ethnic Societies of Africa A Topographic Example for an Accumulation Process of Diversity of Means and Meanings Used for Communication Abstract Method s and Object of Stud y: Methodolog ically, from a diachronic ling uistics perspective re g rding t he lang uag e chang e we compare meaning s a) historically in the local lang ua g and b)compared to the meaning s of the Eng lish lang ua g for equivalent terms. Argumentation: Based upon the set of meaning s found in the local lang uag e and the c ompared to the set of meaning s we will arg ue for a variety of meanin g as sets associated to a term in a lang uag e that shows a certain deg ree of uniqueness compared to equivalent term s in another lang ua g with another set of specific meaning s. Conclusions: Observed chan s in the particular local lang uag es show the c ontinuity of the local set of meaning s. Multi­ling ual communities rather tend to integ rate new words in order to increase the thesaurus with new meaning s than to chang e the set of previous e xisting meaning s in the lang uag es. Eng lish as a second lang uag e is a typical example for such a lang uag e that serves as a tool to implement new meaning s and replaces local lang uag es. We will show that among the African cultures the concept of com munication has developed a variety of expressions with fine nuances. The concept is notg enuin African, but the contributions from African cultures show similarities to European ones; especially the aspect of oral communication has developed a rich vocabulary. Since in North A frica Arabic is the most prominent lang ua , here the Arabic words are used for communication. A specific situation for communications ing eneral has to be considered for Africa with its rural and urban parts. Contrary to recent claims that specific socialcateg ories for communication exist, terms from a rang e of African societies are reviewed. Bothmajor families of lang ua g s are as sets of terms for communication discussed along with the problem of interpreting absence of evidence of lexemes and multiple meaning s of lexems. Based upon the vocabulary of African lang uag es and lang uag es spoken in Africa we will arg ue that communication not only varies depending on the technical tools and facilities, but as a ling uistic condition the concept is in every culture connoted with the terminolog y of its lang ua g and assici ated with specific values for this culture. On Research of Africa and African Communication Concept -- Literacy and Orality ­ About Contemporary African Communication Cond iti ons Communication standards in Africa depend hig hly of the cultural context , the lang uag e, and the technical development. Francis B. Nyamnjoh reviewing Charles C. Okig bo's and Festus Eribo `s.Development and Communicat ion in Africa wrote: ``If Africa's development has stalled due to the poverty of communication capacity among Africa ns, their institutions and g overnments have been much more to blame than the lack of resources.'' 1 The Nigerian 1 Francis B. Nyamnjoh. "Review of Charles C. Okig bo and Festus Eribo, eds, Development and Communicatio n in Africa." In: H­Africa, H­Net Reviews, Aug ust, 2005. H­Net. September 22, 2007. 2 Communicat ions Commissionis the independent national reg ulatory authority for the telecommunications industry in Ni g ria. This commission is responsible for creating an enabling environment for competition among operators in the industry a s well as ensuring the provision of qualitative and efficient telecommunications services throug hout the country. The Commission has initiated several prog rams such asSt at e Accelerat ed Broadband Init iat ive (SABI) and Wire Nigeria Project (WIN) to help stimulate demand and accelerate the uptake of ICT tools and services necessary for the enthronement of a knowledg society in Nig eria. An aim of the org nization is an information rich environment, comparableg lobally in quality telecom service provision, reg ulated by a responsive, world­class org nization. 2 McGee, Corbin, and Kling er use the term `trans­g enerational comm unication' for the transmission of historical knowledg from one to another g neration: ``In t he historical approach, the key to trans­g nerational communication lies in telling a history and imposing that history on young erg enerations, feeding it to them as partof their schooling ,g iving it to them as a premise that cannot be denied,g iving it to them as a c ertainty that is irrefutable.'' 3 After their independence the colonialized countries established a national constitution and in most cases they imply statements and rig hts reg arding communication. These rig hts have their framework in the international forms of constitutions or laws. In Part icipat ory Development Communicat ion: An African Perspect ive was mentioned as conclusions by Boafo: ``Communication and information have sig nificant functions to fulfill in supporting and fostering socio­economic, cultural and political development and trans formation in African countries.'' 4 If we take a look at African communication conditions, we find there an extraordinary situation: Most of the world's lang ua g s exist in Africa. On the one hand the traditional mouth to mouth story telling is part of the oral culture on this continent. African St oryt ellingis an introduction done by Ag atucci. Here A g tucci wrote about t he oral tradition in Africa: ``Ancient writing traditions do exist on the Africancontinent, but most Africans today, as in the past, are primarily oral peoples, and their a rt forms are oral rather than literary. In contrast to written "literature," African "ora ture" (to use Kenyan novelist and critic Ng ug i wa Thiong 'o's phrase) is orally composed and transmitted, and often created to be verbally and communally performed as an integ ral part of dance a nd music.'' 5 One the other hand there is a lack of mass communication and European lang uag es or derived Pidg in serve for administrative and political communication since the colonial ti me. In other words: In Africa there is a very low tradition of literary communication. Pidg in lang ua g s served as linguae francae. In the 21 st century more than 1000 lang ua g s are spoken in Africa. 6 The principal ling uistic families of Africa are Afroasiatic, Nig er­Kordofanian including Nig er­ Cong o, Nilo­Saharan, and Khoisan. 7 The Afro­Asiatic lang uag e family includes 372 lang uag es spoken in African countries. 8 The Nig er­Cong o lang uag e family is the widest among them. African lang ua g s are limited in terms of their va lue as lang ua g s for specific 2 NCC. Nig erian Communications Commission. Retrieved September 22, 2007. 3 McGee, Michael Calvin; Corbin, Carol; Kling er, Geo ffrey. "Service Guarantees Citizenship": The Generation of Criticism in a Postmodern Public Sphere. In: ACJ. Vol. 6, Issue 4, Summer 2003. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 4 Kwame Boafo, S. T. Participatory Development Commun ication: An African Perspective. International Development Research Centre. Retrieved June 26, 200 7. 5 Ag atucci, Cora. African Storytelling . Central Oreg on Community Colleg e. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 6 Africa. Ethnolog ue. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 7 Cf. also: African Lang uag es. Hig hBeam Encyclopedia . Retrieved June 26, 2007. African Lang uag es. Columbia Encyclopedia. June 26, 2007. 8 Cf. UNESCO World Report. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 3 terminolog ies. The terminolog ies of vernacular African lang uag es reflect the boundaries of its society. In the Horn of Africa the lang uag es of Tig ré, Tig rinya, andAmharic are written in the ancient Ethiopic script. Character set of 18 African lang uag es including special letterforms exist. 9 For the projectLinguist ic Diversit y and Lit eracy in a Global Perspect ive. A Comparat ive Lookat Pract ice in Europe and Africa 2004­2006 was written by UNESCO reg arding Africa's multiling ualism: ``At issue is the questi on of how to preserve Africa's multiling ualism and how to put it in the service of the Africancontinent's sustainable development.'' 10 Furthermore, the ling uistic situation in Africa is described as uninfluencedby foreig n chan g s on the level of native communities: ``Althoug h literacy education in Africa -- formal and informal and at adult and child levels -- has been the focus of discussion for decades, little prog ress has been made in establishing habits and practices that root (multi)literacy development meani ng ully into the day to day act ivities of many African lang uag e speaking communities.'' 11 In Africa lar g parts of the continent had never known any form of literacy. That is why this continent represents oral cultures. African countries have -- since there is no written documents -- oral or visual communication systems that preserves colloquial oral traditions. Writing systems developedearly in places like Eg ypt and Ethiopia. Nsibidi script is a writing system of the Ejag h am people of Nig eria. Nsibidi is a complex system of pictog rams and ideog rams. 12 Vai, a lang uag e belong ing to the Mande subdivision of Nig er­Cong o, employs an indig enous script developed in the 19 th century. 13 Languages of Africa and Their Communication Concept A specific situation for communication ing eneral has to be considered for Africa with its rural and urban areas and multicultuarl diversity. The concept'communication' is notg nuin African, but the contributions from African cultures show similarities to European ones; especially the aspect of oral communication and spirituality has developed a rich vocabulary. The most commonly spoken lang ua g in Africa is the Arabic with approximatel y 150 millions speakers in 2005. It is spoken in the whole reg ion of North Africa and reg ions neig hboring the Sahara desert. The second most commonly spoken lang uag e in Africa i s the Swahili (Kiswahili) with approximately 100 millions speakers in 2005. Swahili is spoken in East and Central Africa. The Arabic is an Afro­asiatic lang uag e ofMiddle East orig in while the Swahili is an African lang ua g of East African orig in. Reciprocal communication in Arabic is STUVWX . In Arabic derived YZ[\] is also communication. ^_T` i s to communicate verbally. abc is to notify and communicate. def is to communicate and convey. gTh_ iscommunication as announcement. Yi[a] is correspondence as communication. STUW is contact serving as communication. STjkl is transfer as communication. T_[\] is ar rival as communication. mTno] is a transmitter. STip is letter, communication, and dissertation. 14 A piece of informationg iven is 9 Taylor, Conrad. Typesetting African Lang uag es. Ide og raphy. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 10 Science and Culture UNESCO -- Europarat: Projekt "Ling uistic Diversity and Literacy in ag lobal perspective. A comparative look at practice in Europe and Africa2004­2006`` (www.ecml.at) in Zusammenarbeit mit dem BMBWK und der Österreichischen UNESCO­Kommission. B undesministerium für Bildung , Wissenschaft und Kultur. Austrian Federal Ministry of Education. June 26, 2007. 11 Science and Culture UNESCO -- Europarat: Projekt "Ling uistic Diversity and Literacy in ag lobal perspective. A comparative look at practice in Europe and Africa2004­2006`` (www.ecml.at) in Zusammenarbeit mit dem BMBWK und der Österreichischen UNESCO­Kommission. B undesministerium für Bildung , Wissenschaft und Kultur. Austrian Federal Ministry of Education. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 12 Dalby, David. An Inspired Invention. Hierog lyphic Writing in Africa. UNESCO Courier, April, 1995. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 13 African Lang uag es. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixt h Edition. 2001­05. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 14 Indexed Arabic Newspapers Archive Resource. New Me xico State University. [2.2.2007]. 4 in Arabic w^x]\eyzx] {|xf.. Prior to the coming of Western e ducation another system of education was introduced into West African life: The educational system of Islam. 15 The nomadic Tuareg s were the first inhabitants in the Sahara reg ion. The nomadic Tuareg s share little affinity with the black African majority of Ni gr and have their own script Tifinag h used by some Berbers to write their lang ua g . Swahiliis one of the most important linguae francaein Africa. In Swahilimawasilianois communication. 'Talk' ismazungumzo derived from the rootzungumzaalso comprising conversation, talk, chitchat, and discussion. The verb ­ong ea comprises talk, chat, and converse. The verb ­zungumzacomprises converse, eng g e in conversation, and talk. Zungumzamt andonistands for computer chat. 'Speech' in Swahili ishot ubacomprisisng the meaning s speech, lecture, homily, sermon, and address. Risalais messag and speech. 'Speak' is wanasemaderived from the root--sema. Msemajiis a speaker and a political spokesperson. Nasemacomprises the verbs say and speak. 'Communicate' is the verbt angazawith the alternative maning s publish abroad, announce, communicate, and advertise. Ut angazajiis publicity, advertising , and broadcasting . Wasiliana is a verb for communicating . 16 Swahili serving as a lingua francais an African lang uag e used on the African continent mainly in Tanzania, Kenya, Cong o, Burundi, and U g nda. The Swahili terminol og is basically of Bantu orig in, but it has borrowed words from other lang uag es such as Arabic and Persian, and Portug uese, Eng lis h, and German. 17 Swahili had Arabic written form before the European conquest of Africa. 18 The lang uag is written in a form of the Arabic alphabet. 19 Christian missionaries introduced the Roman alphabet for recording Swahili. The Nig er­Cong o family features lang ua g s of Africa south of the Sahara. The lar g number of participants in African lang ua g s include Swahili, Shona, Xhosa, and Zulu. In Swahili we find a detailed terminolog y for communication. C ommunication in Swahili ishubiri(pl.mahubiri), an expression derived from habari. Communication in Swahili is alsomawasilianoderived from wasiliana. Another expression for communication in Swahili isnjama(njama). For communication in Swahili alsousafiriand usafirishaand upashanaji habari can be used. 20 Confused speech in Swahili is chachawi. A person with a speech­defect or stutterer is calledgugumizi. A speech in Swahili ishot uba. The act ofg iving a speech in Swahili ishut ubu.Swahili as a lang uag e of traders has been influenced by Ara bic words. Early colonisation in the extreme north of Africa has resulted in considerable Arabic and Islamic influence. For example speech is also called kauli, a term derived from Arabic. A Swahili term for communication islughaderived from the Arabic word for lang ua g . In Swahili for communication the nouns mawasiliano, njama, njama, usafiri, and usafirishaare known. Style of speech in Swahili is lafdhi, a term derived from Arabic. The style of speech is described with the noun lafudhi. A formal speech in Swahili is calledlumba.In Swahili the rhetorical example is calledsimulia, hadit hia , and hojiderived from Latin and Arabichadit h , but here nit in the context of the Quranwith the simple meaning of telling a story. Speech in Swahili ismat amko, a term derived fromsema. Children's speech in Swahili is callednyonyo. An expression of speech in Swahili derived from local lang uag es of the area ist amshi. For speech in Swahili the termsusemiand waadhiare also used. The mag ical power of a speech is called uneni. Tanzania’s lang uag es are Swahili and Eng lish next to local l ang uag es. The 15 Doi, A. Rahman. Spread of Islam in West Africa. Al ­Islaah Publications. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 16 Swahili ­ Eng lish Dictionary. African Lang uag es. R etrieved June 26, 2007. 17 Hooker, Richard. Civilisations in Africa. The Swahili King doms. World Cultures Home Pag e. Washing ton State University. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 18 Hooker, Richard. Civilisations in Africa. The Swahili King doms. World Cultures Home Pag e. Washing ton State University. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 19 Cf.: Ethnolog ue Lang uag e Family Index. In: Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Ethnolog ue: Lang uag es of the World, Fifteenth Edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL In ternational. Online Version. Retrieved June 26, 20 07. 20 The Swahili­Eng lish Dictionary. Yale University. R etrieved June 26, 2007. 5 Swahili are urbanised African Muslims. 21 The coast of East Africa from Somalia to Mozambique and the islands of Comores and Madag ascar have remains of Swahili culture. Swahili knows as words describing modes of conversation such as talk idly `piga domo', talk deliriously `ewedeka', and to talk big ` fedhulika' or ` fezulika'. A serious talk is in Swahili `lumba', foolish talk causing amusement or provoking ridicule is in Swahili `majinuni'. `To talk silly' causing amusement is in Swahili called ` majununi'. The noun `idle talk' is in Swahili ` mnong'ono'. The basic noun `talk' in Swahili is ` nena' and ` ongea'. `To talk nonsense' is in Swahili ` lopoka'. The verb `talk uselessly' is in Swahili ` piga mdomo'. The verb `to force someone to talk' is in Swahili ` nyenga'. Other verbs describing special modes of conversation are `to talk someone into something ' (nyenya), `to be talked into something ' (nyenyeka), `to be the talk of the town' (vuma), and `to cause to be talked about' (vumisha). A confused speech is in Swahili called chachawi.A person with a speech­defect is called a gugumizi. Speech in Swahili is called `hotuba' and `tog ive a speech'in Swahili is `hut ubu'. Speech in a Swahili noun derived from Arabic is ` kauli'. Journalistic writing of newspapers and mass media such as radio and television news and interviews, spee ches, ceremonies, and lectures also use Swahili. Nigerian African Culture: Communication .... More Than Word s In many African nations other lang uag es are used, primarilyEng lish and in some cases French, as a national lang ua in order to avoid privileg ing one particular spoken lang ua g or dialect. Leg ends and myths are important parts of the education process. Alfred Opubor in What My Grandmot her Taught Me About Communicat ion: Perspect ives From African Cult ural Valuesmentioned: ``Since the human being is the communication animal, all human societies are endowed with a leg acy of communication theory and pra ctice. And because communication is the social mechanism for building society, all communication is rule­ g overned, providing the basis for expectations and predictions of whatothers will say and do. The rules of communication­in­society also provide a basis for ev aluation of what is correct or rig ht org ood, i.e., for making ethical and moral judg ments about communication practice and communication acts.'' 22 Opuborg ives examples for the African understanding of terms such as `truth' and `news': Statements based on experience and verifiable facts are accepted as true. In this sense, truth is based on inter­subjective va lidation. The Itsekiri word for truth isoron fo , which means `g ood word' or ` nuine word'. The Itsekiri recog nize iyen, as a report of an event by someone else. The hearer did not witness or experience the event; and the teller may or may not have witnessed or experienced it. But the point of view for defining something asiyen, is that receiver's viewpoint; ``someone told me.'' 23 Contemporary Nig erian proverbs on communication say: A drunkard's words are sober man's reflect ions. A rumor goes in one ear andout many mout hs. Words should be weighed,not count ed. Deeds are fruit s; words leaves. If conversat ion doest he cooking, it cooks bad food. 24 Communication as talk in these proverbs is considered of lower val ue than actions and the value of words have to be examined. Ni g ria has three native local official lang uag es plus Eng lish. Ig bo belong s to the Benue­Cong o branch of the Nig er­Con f amily primarily spoken by 20 million Ig bo people of southeastern Nig eria. Yoruba i s spoken in Tog o, Ni g ria, and Benin by more than 20 million people in the southwest reg ion of Ni g ria. It i s also spoken 21 Swahili Culture. UNESCO. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 22 Jenkins, Orville Boyd. Orality and the Post­Literate West. Strateg Leader. Retrieved June 26, 2007.. 23 Jenkins, Orville Boyd. Orality and the Post­Literate West. Strateg Leader. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 24 Nig erian Proverbs: Nig erian Wise Saying s. Nig erianet. Retrieved September 22, 2007. 6 in parts of Benin and Tog o. Traditionally visual and oral communication c hannels are conjunct in all Ni rian lang uag es. Some lang uag es such as Yo ruba are so full of metaphors that normal speech often is received like prose. Disputes are lod g d with the appropriate official who varies from the oldest male of the family up to the King . Speakers are expected to show respect to the mag istrate and to use ceremonial modes of address when speaking Yoruba. Proverbs in Nig eria have more than an educational purpose. ANig erian proverb added by Uzodinma says: ``My g andfather said that when something happens that calls for a proverb then you use a proverb.'' 25 Here the use of a proverb means to act according ly. In g eneral words are seen with precautiousness. Ko ju ma ri bi. Ese lo gun e means If you don't want t o see evil,t alkt o your legs. 26 Yoruba say: What an old man sees while lying down, a young man can never see even when he climbs up in at ree . 27 Ig bo have the proverbsSeeing is bet t ert han hearing and Fine words donot produce food. 28 Ene wrote that Ig bo proverbs are the `salt with which words are eaten'. Ig bo proverbs are not only central to the propa g tion of Ig bo culture in all its ramifications. For Ene they are ``the f oremost factor in formal and familiar speeches and in other forms of popular communication''. U se of Ig bo idioms (akpaalaokwu), proverbs ( ilu) and parables (ukabuilu) has ``elevated the lang ua g to the status of a living art of popular communication''. 29 In Yoruba communicate is so­fun, fi­han, fi­fun, jumo, bayepokowe. Communication is oroififunikowe. The verb speak is wísosorofohun.A speaker is an ero ìsoroorayafo. 30 Discuss issorolelori, foroworo, so,kinikini, wadi, and jiroro.Discussion isijiroro, isorolelori, iwadii, iforoworo, asogba, and oro. 31 In Yoruba society an elaborate code of unwritten rules exists. 32 It prescribes how one can sustain correct relations throug hout the visible and invisible world. 33 The Yoruba lang uag specifies two learning methods. Learning by imitation of older youth and adults is termed awoko.Learning by active instruction of adults is termedifiye. 34 In Yoruba communicate is so­fun, fi­han, fi­ fun, jumo, and bayeokowe. Communication is oroififunikowe. Dance is considered means of African communication. Sieg rt wrote: ``Tanz ist in diesem Sinne also ein Kommunikationsmedium. Williams betont die Wichtig keit solcher Medien in der heutig en Zeit, wo funktionierende Kommunikation ist in einerg loba lisierten Welt eine unabding bare Voraussetzung für das Geling en des friedlichen Mitei nanders ist. Tanz kann hier, wie auch andere kulturelle Güter, ein Vermittler sein, wenn er in der richtig en Weise 25 Nig erian Proverbs: Nig erian Wise Saying s. Retrieved September 22, 2007. 26 Nig erian Proverbs (in Eng lish). Retrieved September 22, 2007. 27 Some Nig erian Proverbs. African Studies Center. Boston University. Retrieved September 22, 2007. 28 Some Nig erian Proverbs. African Studies Center. Boston University . Retrieved September 22, 2007. 29 Ene, M. O. Akpaalaokwu. "Ig bo idioms". Retrieved September 22, 2007. 30 Yoruba Dictionary. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 31 Yoruba Dictionary. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 32 Odùduwà, Yorùbá Omo. Papers on Yoruba People, Lang uag e, and Culture. By Yoruba Lang uag e Prog ram Students. University of Georg ia. Compiled and Previewed by Akinloye Ojo. The University of Georg ia. [2.2.2007]. 33 Ellis, Alfred Burdon. Yoruba­speaking People of th e Slave Coast of West Africa. Sacred Texts. June 26 , 2007. 34 Weiss Thompson, LaNette. The Non­Literate and the Transfer of Knowledg e in West Africa. Chronolog ical Bible Sturies. June 26, 2007. 7 ang wendet wird.'' 35 The drum is considered as a tool of communication. For example contemporary Nig erian proverbs on beauty say 'The African drum speakst he language of our dead'and 'Unless a lion is dead no one dares seek aft er it s skint o make at alking drum'. Another proverb associates words with wild birds:Words are like birds, once releasedt hey cannot be recapt ured. In Yoruba Praise of Meningit is the illness is described: Praise of Meningit is We aret he end We are meningit is We are allot her illnesses We ownt he bit of eart h behindt hehut Laughing one,t here is no cure fort his illness Reveller,t here is no rejoicing wit hout us. 36 Nig erian literature in Eng lish has witnessed an impressiveexpansion in the 20 th century. The Nobel Prize for Lit erat ure wasg iven to the black Africa's literary artist Wole So yinka in 1986. Things Fall Apart is a 1958 Eng lish­lang uag e novel by Nig erian author Chinua Achebe read in schools all over Africa considered as the archetypal mode rn African novel in Eng lish about the life of Okonkwo, a leader and local wrestling champion. In N ig eria people are org nized in extended families ( nnu), villag e ( iduorobio), lineag (duk), and lineag eg roups (iman). 37 Western influences be g n affecting Ni g rian literature as e arly as the 8 th century C.E., when Arabic culture was introduced to Africa. During the 14 th century written and spoken Arabic flourished in Northern Nig eria and by the 17 th century, some Hausa literature had been translated into Arabic. 38 For the Haussa lang uag emaalamai(scribes) use Arabic characters. 39 In Hausa communication is hulda, messag faakarwa. A messag is jawabi, labari, manzanci, sanarwa, sallahu, and sako; ag ood messa g isbishara. 40 Hausa separates between different forms of talk and speech. In Hausa gana, jit a­jit a , kaa da baki ,t aadaa, zant aa , and zant aa is talk.Baat sais indecent talk. Rambadaais talk loudly. Ceeceekuceeis cheap talk. Cancakwat o , ceeceekucee, cakaft uu , cakaa­cakaa, cakaaniiyaa, and dumiiis talkativeness. Suruut u is noisy talkativeness. Galaan­gwalaanis talking in a foreig n lang ua . Zauranceeis talking in secret lang ua g . Gwalaan­gwalaanis not understandable talking . 41 In Hausa firiciiand furuciiis speech.Huduba,t akarda, lafaziand maganais also speech. Jawaabiis an address. Derived from Arabickalamimeans speech. Adresss speech issako. Laccais political speech.Harigidois ang ry speech. 42 Christian missionaries accelerated the importation of Western education into Nig eria during the 19 th century. In Zulu for 35 Nadine Sieg ert. Annäherung en an den Tanz. In: Das Ntama ­ Internet Journal for African Music and Popu lar Culture ist ein Projekt des Archivs für die Musik A frikas. Institut für Ethnolog ie und Afrikasstudien.Johannes Gutenberg ­Universität Mainz. Retrieved September 22 , 2007. 36 Yoruba Praise of Mening itis. Matt's Poetry Pocketbook. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 37 LeBaron, Michelle. Culture­Based Neg otiation Style s. Beyond Intractability. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 38 Shaihua, Maalam. Hausa Folklore. Translated by R. Sutherland Rattray. Clarendon Press. Sacred Texts. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 39 Bleek, Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel; Lloyd, Lucy C. S pecimen of Bushmen Folklore. Sacred Texts. Retrieve d June 26, 2007. 40 Eng lish­to­Hausa Query by Franz Stoiber 2001. Retr ieved June 26, 2007. 41 Franz Stoiber. Eng lish­to­Hausa. University Vienna. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 42 Franz Stoiber. Eng lish­to­Hausa. University Vienna. Retrieved September 22, 2007. 8 communication `ukuzwana' and ` ukukhulumisana' are used. In Zulu `talk' is khuluma, and speech isinkulumo. Communication in another African lang ua g , Xhosa, is `ut hungelwano'. In Changing Communicat ion Dynamics in Africa Francis B. Nyamnjoh from Cameroong ives an inside view of communication from an ethnic African perspective: ``There used to be a time, so my parents said, so their parents said, g­ng back throug h g andparents andg reat­ g randparents.... There used to be a time when it was proper to dream, to hope and to yearn for a world united by a shared determination to enshrine human dig nity. T hat was when to communicate was to reach out and celebrate difference, to app ropriate the fascinating marvels of the creative diversity of our worlds. To communicate within the family and in the community was to imbue, tog uide, to tend, to ensure, assure and reassur e all and sundry that one person's child is only in the womb.'' 43 Nyamnjoh describes the functions of communication as follows: To communicat e wast o sow, nourish andt endt he flower of convivialit y and int erdependence. It wast o keep conflict in check, t o harness creat ive energies int he service of humanit y. To communicat e wast ot aket imet o share,t o list en, hear and be heard,t o feel and t o be felt ,t o see andt o be seen. It wast o be pat ient wit h our mult ip le voices,t o creat e room for all races, genders, cult ures, creeds and generat ionst o rise and shine. 44 Orality as Tool for Communication The oral tradition developed in the oral societies of sub­SaharanAfrica and particularly in West Africa, to which this communication primarily refers. The oral tradition continued to live on in pre­literate societies or within those societies. 45 These societies have made only minor developments re rding written expression. 46 Oral African storytelling is essentially a communal event. 47 Different ways of African oral tradition can be mentioned. Myths and cultural elements contained in the relig ious tales and rituals have the lang uag of the cultural drums and the ritual. 48 The myth in Africa is a traditional way of narration, which is object of strong belief and occultism. Proverbs in Africa showg uidelinesfor ethical behaviour and wisdom. The tale is as an illustration, when the storytellers say a proverb before developing its meaning with the help of the tale. 49 There are elements of writing in a mainly oral tradition and elements of orality in a mainly literate tradition. 50 The term g iot refers to traditional 43 Nyamnjoh, Francis B. Chang ing Communication Dynami cs in Africa. WACC. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 44 Nyamnjoh, Francis B. Chang ing Communication Dynami cs in Africa. WACC. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 45 Diaye, Raphaël. 65th IFLA Council and General Conf erence. Bang kok, Thailand, Aug ust 20 ­ Aug ust 28, 1999. Oral tradition: From Collection to Dig itization. Retrieved June 26, 2007.. 46 Boni, Stefano. Contents and Contexts. The Rhetoric of Oral Traditions in the (O)man of Sefwi Wiawso, Ghana. In: Africa. Vol. 70. 4 (2000). Pp. 568­595. 47 Cf. Biakolo, Emevwo A. ``On the Theoretical Foundat ions of Orality and Literacy.'' In: Research in African Literatures. Vol. 30. 2 (1999). Pp.42­65 48 Ag uessi, Honorat. La Tradition Orale, Modèle de Cu lture. La Tradition Orale, Source de la Littérature Contemporaine en Afrique. Dakar: Nouvelles Editions Africaines 1984. Pp. 44­54. 49 Myth ­ Creation ­ Africa. Ancient History. About. Retrieved June 26, 2007. Myth ­ Africa Index. Encyclopedias. About. Retriev ed June 26, 2007. African Myths. Mythic Crossroads. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 50 Cf. The term `neg ro writing ' is used in: 9 recitators throug hout Western Africa. Africang riots serve as historians, storytellers, traditional praise sing ers, and musicians. 51 Occult powers and primal energ ies of creation and destruction are called nyamaby Mande peoples of Western Africa. 52 The jeliorg riots are a subg roup of the artisan professions that the Mande desig natenyamakalaw, or nyama­ handlers. 53 Article 9 of theCult ural Chart a for Africa by the Organisat ion of African Unit y (Organisat ion de l' Unit e Africain ) (1976) stated: The AfricanSt at es agreet o undert aket he following:­(a)creat e condit ions which will enablet heir peoplest o part icipat et ot he full in t he development and implement at ion of cult ural policies;(b)defend and developt he peoples' cult ure; (c) implement a cult ural polic y providing fort he advancement of creat ive art ist s;(d)t o, whenev er necessary, abolisht he cast e syst em and rehabilit at et hefunct ions of art ist and craft sman (griot s and craft smen). 54 Oral histories are also handed down from elders to the young er g nerations. The communicative function of theg riotsg ave them an important role i n the community. The proverb is a tool of teaching . Here we find rules for personal communication. The African proverb ’Muvumbo wa kañonyi ye wit ubula kajo ko aja ’ (’The beak of the bird is what tells us the thing s it eats’) has the meaning that someone’s words show w hat kind of person he/she is. The proverb ’Kipungulu wapakalala ka, ami napakalala byambo .’ (’Owl, why are you so quiet? I am quiet because of words’) has the meaning that when one is quiet, it is usually because something is on his mind. The proverb ’Akamwa komunt u: si kant e ’ (’A man's mouth is not a cow's mouth which ruminates’) has the meaning that t he one who isg uilty is the one that has much to say. The Ashanti proverb ’Words are sweet, but they never take the place of food.’ shows the relative importance of words. A Kiha pr overb from Tanzania says: `A lazy person talks for so long , a determinant does.' 55 The Akan and Ewe proverb ` Nunya, adidoe, asi met unee o. ` means `Wisdom is like a baobab tree; no one individual can em brace it'. 56 Proverbs as contested texts make them appropriate materialfor the discussion of an African philosophy of history. The Ikwerre of the Nig er Delta did so in tw o proverbs: The keen ear isnot as big as an umbrella. A large eye doesnot mean keen vision. 57 Even after written lang' g developed, many societies rejected writing for relig ious or cultural reasons. 58 Griots can alternate between a fixed text and improvisation of themes. Within the Circle. An Antholog of African American Literary Criticism from the Harlem Renaissance to the Present. Ed. by Ang elyn Mitchell. London: Durham 19 94. Cf. Greenberg , Joseph H. "African Lang uag es, African Tong ues and Tribes.'' In: Greenberg , Joseph H. Lang uag e, Culture and Communication. Stanford: Univ ersity Press 1971. Pp. 126­136; Pp. 137­142 51 Sag e, Bethany. West African Storytellers. Griots and Griottes. Chatham Colleg e. Retrieved June 26, 20 07. 52 Ag atucci, Cora. African Storytelling . An Introduction, with Works Cited and Source for Further Study. Central Oreg on Community Colleg e. Retrieved June 26 , 2007. 53 Cf. Ag atucci, Cora. African Storytelling . An Introduction, with Works Cited & Source for Further Study. Central Oreg on Community Colleg e. Retrieved June 2 6, 2007. 54 Cultural Charta for Africa. Org anisation of African Unity Org anisation de l' Unite Africain. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 55 African Proverbs. African Proverbs, Saying s and St ories. CNET Global Inc. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 56 African Proverbs, Saying s and Stories. CNETGlobal Inc. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 57 Alag oa, Ebieg beri Joe. An African Philosophy of History. Nig erdelta Cong ress. Retrieved June 26, 2007 . 10 Griots create and adapt themes and motives related to the occasion. 59 As shamans they practice mag ic such as healing or finding lost or stolen object s. At a wedding in the 1960s a wandering story teller used the occasion to accuse male school te achers who were infamous for their affairs with schoolg irls: Vadzidzisi vanochema Vanochema navakadzi Vanogoda vamwe vei Ivo vanavo vechikoro. Teachers are grieving They yearn for wives But which wives again Whent hey have school girls Right int heir midst ? 60 In the Asmara Declarat ion on African Languages and Lit erat ures the following statement was made: Wenot ed wit h pridet hat despit e allt he odds against t hem, Afri can languages as vehicles of communicat ion and knowledge survive and have a writ t en cont inuit y oft hoousands of years. Colonialism creat ed some oft he most serious obst acles against African languages and lit erat ures. 61 European Languages in Africa and Self­Definition of Africa: Colonization and the Language Concept in Africa Hurskainen wrote that Africa is a peculiar continent in that ­a lthoug it has for several thousands years communicated with indig enous lang uag es for Africa­ its `dominant lang uag es' since the postcolonial era are not African in orig in. 62 With Islamisation Christianity disappeared in North Africa except in Eg ypt, Up per Nubia, and Ethiopia. Both relig ions broug ht literacy to Africa. In the 19 th century Christian missionaries taug ht illiterate Africans reading and created written forms for native lang uag es . The entire education system in Africa is based on adopted lang uag es. 63 African Christian stories like the Christmas Story were adapted by African society. Missionaries used parables to adjust to the local oral tradition. 64 Indo­European lang uag es used in Africa include Afrikaans and Eng lish in the Republic of South Africa and Zimbabwe. South African Afrikaans w as influenced by Dutch and has the termt aalfor communication next to the bekendmaking, berig, kennisgewing. Dutch --the lang ua g Afrikaans derived from-- has the termst aal, aansluit ing , bericht , 58 Fournier, Stephen M. A Brief History and Theory of Speaking . Website Fournier. Retrieved June 26, 200 7. 59 Sall, Mbathio. The Importance of Oral Tradition for Children. Case of Countries of the Sahel. 65th IF LA Council and General Conference. Bang kok, Thailand, Aug ust 20 ­ Aug ust 28, 1999. June 26, 2007. 60 Poem cited from: Hove, Chenjerai. The Place of Oral Traditions in Indig enous Communications: Effect o f Modern Mass Media and New Technolog ies of Communica tion. WAC. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 61 The Asmara Declaration on African Lang uag es and Li teratures. Retrieved About. June 26, 2007. 62 Hurskainen, Arvi. The Role of African Lang uag es in Communication. Swahili­seminaari, Kaapelitehdas. University Helsinki. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 63 Cultural Charta for Africa. Org anisation of African Unity Org anisation de l' Unite Africain. June 26,2007. 64 Cf. Healey, Joseph G. Eig ht Mission Stories and An ecdotes. Parish Without Borders. Retrieved June 26,2007. 11 communicat ie , communiqué, gemeenschap, mededeling,t ijding, verbindingand verwit t iging for communication processes. Afrikaans in South Africa had emer g das a distinctive lang uag e by the mid­18 th century. West African Pidg in Eng lish includes Pidg in Eng lishof Gambia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ghanaia, Ni g ria, and Cameroon. 65 Krio is an Eng lish­based Creole similar in many respects to Nig erian Pidg in Eng lishand Cameroonian Pidg in Eng lish. Krio uses the Latin Alphabet. There are shifts of vowels like i n jompfor `jump'. West African Pidg in Eng lish spoken in Ghana survives in mixed­tribe schools and among lower­class people. Kamtok, Cameroon Pidg in, is the pidg inised Eng lish of Cameroon since at least the 1880s used next to French and Eng lish. Examples are put han(from put plus hand 'help'), the word aidiazcoming from the European mind concept meaning 'ideas', and advaisismeaning 'pieces of advice'. Kamtok has been used for the purposes of relig ious education. The Catholic Church was the first org anisation using Kamtok as a medium of communication and as a written lang ua g . 66 Song s occupy an important place in African oral literature.Song s are used in all moments of life, especially on occasion of ritual ceremoni es. In a work song in Kamtok the conversation between master and worker long ing for entertainment expr essed: Masa, a wan wohk o! na wohk dis o! masa, yu wan wohk o! na wohk dis o! o ya ya! soso dai wohk o! mohni no dei o! o ya ya! mohni no dei o! wuman no dei o! o ya ya! daso dai wohk o! na wohk dis o! o ya ya! 'Mast er, I want work.' 'This is work.' 'Mast er, you want work.' 'This is work.' 'Always killing work.' 'There's no money.' 'There's no money.' 'There are no women.' 'Only killing work.' 'This is work .' 67 Paulin Joachim from Benin wrote the poem Ant i­grace, an example of post­colonial cultural mélang of associations: ant i­grace a life dismal and congealed like an enormous hernia drooping from at ripe­st all I callant i­grace t hat epilept ic pendulum sprung fromt he Angel's malice swinging back and fort h passing int ot he sun and passing int ot he shade powerlesst o shat t er Hist ory andt o reacht he privileged rock wheret he Spirit has set his seed which binds and loosens powerlesst o rise from it s offense. 68 The speech I Am an Africanby Thabo Mbeki, the Deputy President of the Republic of South Africa, contains a descriptions of the peoples of South Africa and Mbeki' confirmation that he is a part of them: 65 Cf. Sebba, Mark. Contact Lang uag es: Pidg ins and Cr eoles. Basing stoke: MacMillan 1997. 66 Todd, Loreto. Kamtok (Cameroon Pidg in). University of New Eng land. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 67 Todd, Loreto. Kamtok (Cameroon Pidg in). University of BNew Eng land. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 68 Dan Reboussin. Africana Collection, Georg e A. Smat hers Libraries, University of Florida. Joachim, Pau lin. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 12 Being part of allt hese people, and int he knowledget hat none dare cont est t hat assert ion, I shall claimt hat ­ I am an African 69 Biko in a speech created a new word, black communialism, for the predominant prospective form of politics in Africa: The Black Consciousness movement doesnot want t o accept t he dilemma of capit alism versus communism. It opt s for a sociali st solut iont hat is an aut hent ic expression of black communialism. 70 Communication in Post­Colonial African Countries -- Communication Laws and Technical Communications The course African Lang ua g s offered by the School of Language and Lit erarySt udies in South Africa are taug ht as communication subjects focusing on article, report, correspondence, comprehension test, paraphrasing , summarising , exp ansion, documentation and procedures for meeting s, lang uag e usa g , oral communication, the m edia and theory of communication. Communication courses are offered in Xitsong a, in Setsw ana, in IsiXhosa, and in IsiZulu. 71 As an effect of the colonisation in contemporary Africa two typ es of lang uag es exist: The lang ua g s of the orig inal inhabitants and t he lang uag es from the colonial countries. Marcus Mosiah Garvey, national hero of Jamaica (1887-- 1940), w as a publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, black nationalist, and founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Associat ion and African Communit ies League (UNIA­ACL ). Marcus Garvey`sThe Bat t le Hymn of Africadescribes the idea of a unified Africa: The Bat t le Hymn of Africa Africa's sun is shining abovet he horizon clear, The day for us is rising, for black men far and near; Our God is int he front line,t he heav'nlybat allion leads, Onward, make your banners shine, ye men of noble deeds. 72 The constitution of Cong o has three articles reg rding freedom of expression and communication: Art icle 27 (Expression, Media, Informat ion) (1) Every cit izen shall havet he right t o freely express and diffuse his opinion by speech, by writ ing, and by image. Art icle 28 (Secrecy of Communicat ion) Secrecy of let t ers, correspondence,t elecommunicat ions, or anyot her form of communicat ion shallnot be violat ed except int he case prescribed by law. 69 Mbeki, Thabo. I Am an African. Statement of Deputy President TM Mbeki, on Behalf of the African Natio nal Cong ress, on the Occasion of the Adoption by the Co nstitutional Assembly of ``The Republic of South Afr ica Constitutional Bill 1996.'' Cape Town, 8 May 1996. I ssued by: Office of the Deputy President. ChickenBo nes: A Journal for Literary and Artistic African­AmericanThemes. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 70 Biko Speaks on Africa. ChickenBones ­ A Journal. R etrieved June 26, 2007. 71 Unisa Online. School of Lang uag es and Literary Studies. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 72 Bahamabrands Web Services. Marcus Garvey Homepag e. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 13 For South African politics Fackson Banda stated: ``DeliberativeDemocracy and Communitarianism: This is a variant within participatory (de mocratic) theory. It emphasizes the fundamental importance of consensus­oriented public deliberati on to a democratic society. The stress on participation as deliberative communication or dialog ue is the main distinction with earlier theories of participatory democracy.'' 73 The World Associat ion of Communit y Broadcast ers (AMARC) Africa is a network of community radio stations. TheSout hern Africa Communicat ions for Development (SACOD) is a network of southern African filmmakers, film and video production org anisations and distributors.Sudan Organisat ion Against Tort ure (SOAT) Freedom of Expression Programme has been active in voicing and increasing awareness on the human rig hts situation in Sudan in localand national levels. Reg arding Francophone Africa, there are 15 journalism and communication schools. In Portug uese­speaking Africa only two countries have journalism/communi cation schools. Various departments and schools of journalism and communication in Afri can universities offer under­ g aduate and post­g raduate teaching prog ams, but experience the local problems in their working environment. 74 The Cult ural Chart a for Africa by the Organisat ion of African Unit y (Organisat ion de l' Unit e Africain ) (1976) stated in Article 7: The AfricanSt at es recognizet hat t he driving force of Africa is based more on development oft he collect ive personalit yt han on individual advancement and profit , andt hat cult ure cannot be considered ast he privilege of an elit e. 75 Article 17 stated that ``the African States recog nize the i mperative need to develop African lang uag es which will ensure their cultural advancement and accelerate their economic and social development and to this end will endeavour to formulate a nat ional policy in reg ard to lang uag es.'' 76 Reg arding theUse of Mass Media article 20 stated that ``the African States should recog nize that there can be no cultural policy without corresponding policies on information and communication. Article 21 The African States should encourag e the use of the information and communication media for their cultural development .'' 77 Many African newspapers, mag azines, and radio broadcasts in the 21 st century employ various vernaculars. Africa's ling uistic diversity are a hindrance to mass communication, so that European lang uag es like Eng lish and French are still widely used in themedia. Communication in Africa is according to Obijiofor categ orized into rural and urba n forms, the urban being larg ly associated with Western influences. Rural communication is lar g ly oral, with people expecting immediate feedback. Based on this premise Obijiofo r sees the telephone as the 'future' technolog y as it embraces the central element of Af rican mode of communication -- orality, while the Internet is considered too impersonal. 78 In Journalism and Mass Communicat ion in Africa edited by Festus Eribo and Enoh Tanjong , an analysis of mass communication in Cameroon within a historical framework was done exp licating the development of print and electronic media, the relationship betwe en journalists and the empowerment of the people, theg rowth of public relations, adver tising , publishing industry 73 Banda, Fackson. Media and Cyber­Democracy in Afric a: An Introduction. Rhodes University. Retrieved J une 26, 2007. 74 Cf. Kwame Boafo, S.T. Ang lophone Africa: Prog ress Report. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 75 Cultural Charta for Africa. Org anisation of African Unity Org anisation de l' Unite Africain. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 76 Cultural Charta for Africa. Org anisation of African Unity Org anisation de l' Unite Africain. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 77 Cultural Charta for Africa. Org anisation of African Unity Org anisation de l' Unite Africain. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 78 Obijiofor, Levi. Future of Communication in Africa's Development. In: Futures. 30. No. 2/3 (1998). Pp . 161­ 174. P. 163 14 and communication research. 79 African communication laws and communication tools are in prog ess and under the reg ulation of theg overnment. For example in Cameroon the main reg ulatory bodies are theCameroon Media Council (CMC) and the Nat ional Communicat ions Council(NCC). While the former is answerable to the Minister of Com munication, the latter answers to the Prime Minister. Republic of South Africa's Se ction 14 of theSout h African Const it ut ion of 1996 states that everyone has the rig ht to privacy, which includesthe rig ht not to have their person or home searched; their property searched; their poss essions seized, or the privacy of their communications infring ed. 80 In South Africa theGovernment Gazet t e on January 22, 2003 (Act No. 70, 2002) released Regulat ions of Int ercept ion of Communicat ions and Provision of Communicat ion­relat ed Informat ion Act . `Direct communication' means: (a) oral communicat ion,ot hert han an indirect communicat ion, bet weent wo or more persons which occurs int he immediat e presenc e of allt he persons part icipat ing int hat communicat ion or (b)ut t erance by a person who is part icipat ing in an indirect communicat ion, ift heut t erance is audiblet o anot her person who,at t het imet hat t he indirect communicat ion occurs, is int he immediat e presence oft he person part icipat ing int he indirect communicat ion. 81 In their definition `communication' includes both a direct communication and an indirect communication; `communication­related information' means any informa tion relating to an indirect communication which is available in the records of a te lecommunication service provider, and includes switching , dialing or sig naling information that identifies the orig in, destination, termination, duration, and equipment used in respect, of each indirect communicationg enerated or received by a customer or user of any equipment, facility or service provided by such a telecommunication service provider and, where applicable, the location of the user. 82 79 Journalism and Mass Communication in Africa: Camer oon. Ed. By Festus Eribo and Enoh Tanjong . New York: Lexing ton Books 2002. 80 South Africa Survey 2003. Privacy International. R etrieved June 26, 2007. 81 Reg ulations of Interception of Communications and Provision of Communication­related Information Act. Government Gazette. No. 24286. 22 January 2003. Act No. 70, 2002. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 82 Reg ulations of Interception of Communications and Provision of Communication­related Information Act. Government Gazette. No. 24286. 22 January 2003. Act No. 70, 2002. Retrieved June 26, 2007. 15